In sociology, biculturalism is the co-existence of two originally distinct cultures.
Official policy recognizing, fostering, or encouraging biculturalism typically emerges in countries that have emerged from a history of national or ethnic conflict in which neither side has gained complete victory. This condition usually arises from colonial settlement. Resulting conflicts may take place either between the colonisers and indigenous peoples (as in Fiji) and/or between rival groups of colonisers (as in, for example, South Africa). A deliberate policy of biculturalism influences the structures and decisions of governments to ensure that they allocate political and economic power and influence equitably between people and/or groups identified with each side of the cultural divide.
Examples include the conflicts between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians, between Anglophone White South Africans and Boers, and between the indigenous Māori people and European settlers in New Zealand. The term biculturalism was originally adopted in Canada, most notably by the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (1963–1969), which recommended that Canada become officially bilingual.
Because the term biculturalism suggests, more or less explicitly, that only two cultures merit formal recognition, advocates of multiculturalism (for which biculturalism formed a precedent) may regard bicultural outlooks as an inadequate descriptor by comparison. This was the case in Canada where Ukrainian Canadians activists such as Jaroslav Rudnyckyj, Paul Yuzyk and other "third force" successfully pressured the Canadian government to adopt multiculturalism as official policy in 1971.
In the context of relations between the cultures of deafness and non-deafness, people find the word "biculturalism" less controversial because the distinction between spoken language and sign language commonly seems like a genuine binary distinction—transcending the distinctions between various spoken languages.
In the context of the United States of America, bicultural distinctions have traditionally existed between the US and Mexico, and between the White and the African-American population of the US.
Regions which formally recognize biculturalism include:
Belgium, divided basically between speakers of French and of Dutch Vanuatu, formerly a condominium with both French and British politico-administrative traditions the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, retrospectively termed "The Commonwealth of Both Peoples" Switzerland, overwhelmingly German and French in language (though with recognition of Italian and Romansch) Paraguay, with a population 90% of which speaks Guaraní and 99% of which speaks Spanish New Zealand, where the Treaty of Waitangi forms the basis of a relationship between the Crown and Māori iwi (tribes) through which te reo Māori is recognised as an official language, and Māori have protected representation in Parliament through the Māori electorates Hong Kong, where both Chinese and English are official languages
Biculturalism can also refer to individuals (see bicultural identity).
Public sector human resource management Countries that acknowledge biculturalism can seek to equally represent the interests of both culture groups at a national level. One approach that can be used to achieve this is human resource management in public administration. Several theories can be used to explore its application.
Representative bureaucracy in bicultural contexts
Representative bureaucracy asserts that when the demographic composition of the public sector workforce matches that of the population, the result is better responsiveness to the public's needs.Kingsley, J.D. (1944). Representative Bureaucracy; An Interpretation of the British Civil Service. Cambridge University Press
In a bicultural context, it involves ensuring that both cultural populations are represented in public sector decision making. Ensuring meaningful participation from them is often considered essential to delivering a responsive and equitable public service.
Equitable representation can be explored using either passive or active perspectives.Mosher, F. C. (1968). Democracy and the Public Service. Oxford University Press. Symbolic representation does not appear to have been readily applied to bicultural contexts.
Passive representation In a bicultural context, passive representation refers to the extent to which the relative proportion of both cultures in the population is reflected in the bureaucracy.
In New Zealand, passive representation is a focus of the Public Service Commission (New Zealand). For example, it was referenced in 2022, when the then New Zealand Public Service Commissioner Peter Hughes stated that the diversity of the New Zealand's public sector workforce should reflect the full diversity of the communities it serves.Public Service Commission. (2022a). Te Kahu Tuatini: State of the Public Service. https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/assets/DirectoryFile/State-of-the-Public-Service-Digital.pdf Progress is evaluated by workforce data. According to it, Māori people represent 16.7% of the public service as at 2024,Public Service Commission. (n.d.). Te iwitanga i roto i te Ratonga Tūmatanui: Ethnicity.https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/assets/DirectoryFile/State-of-the-Public-Service-Digital.pdf compared to 17.8% of the population as at March 2023. The proportion of different Iwi in the public service is considered relatively similar to the population.
Under-representation becomes more significant by occupation type. Pākehā are overrepresented among managers; Māori are underrepresented among Chief Executives.
Active representation Active representation in a bicultural context refers to the expectation that public service workers from each cultural group will make decisions informed by knowledge of their cultural group. The theory is based on the argument that those from different cultures hold identities that are informed by their shared backgrounds and experiences. In turn, some scholars propose they will be more likely to make judgements that are informed by and reflect the interests of the groups they identify with.Meier, K. (2023). Representative bureaucracy and social equity: Bias, perceived fairness and efficacy. Journal of Social Equity and Public Administration, 1(1), 23–38. https://doi.org/10.24926/jsepa.v1i1.4814
For example, in New Zealand, aspirations towards active representation were recently implied in a report by the Public Service Commission: "the trend towards greater diversity in Public Service workforces is, in part, designed to enable the Public Service to engage better with the diverse communities, families, and individuals that make up New Zealand society".Public Service Commission. (2022b). Te Kirirarautanga: Te Whai Wāhitanga Tūmatanui ki Te Kāwanatanga Anamata: Enabling Active Citizenship: Public Participation in Government into the Future.https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/assets/DirectoryFile/Long-Term-Insights-Briefing-Enabling-Active-Citizenship-Public-Participation-in-Government-into-the-Future.pdfa
Scholars disagree about the importance of equal representation at all levels of the bureaucratic hierarchy,Hong, S. (2020). Representative bureaucracy and hierarchy: interactions among leadership, middle-level, and street-level bureaucracy. Public Management Review, 23(9), 1317–1338. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2020.1743346 but it is an active concern in New Zealand where Māori have a right to self-determination (see also tino rangatiratanga) under Article 2 of the Treaty of Waitangi. The Public Service Commission actively looks to hire more Māori in leadership positions as part of its work (see Diversity management below).
Criticisms of representative bureaucracy in bicultural settings There are several criticisms that apply to representative bureaucracy in bicultural contexts.
Firstly, when public servants are required to work within the norms and values of a single cultural group, they may be constrained from upholding the perspectives of their cultural group in a way that is consistent with active representation. For example, Section 14 of New Zealand's Public Service Act 2020 states that "the role of the public service includes supporting the Crown in its relationships with Māori under the Treaty of Waitangi (te Tiriti o Waitangi)".Public Service Act 2020. https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2020/0040/latest/LMS106159.html This suggests that the primary role of a Māori public servant is to support the Crown, over advocating for Māori.
Secondly, workers may be expected to represent their cultural group through extra work that's not an explicit part of their role. Research from New Zealand's Public Service commission in 2022 suggested Māori can feel burdened by expectations that they will increase the cultural capability of their organisation and don't always feel this extra work is appropriately recognised.Public Service Commission. (2022c). Te Taunaki Public Service Census: Inclusion deep dive. https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/research-and-data/te-taunaki-public-service-census-inclusion-deep-dive/workplace-experiences-and-inclusion For example, this can manifest in expectations that Māori staff will organise hui (Māori assembly), lead karakia or act as an iwi liaison.
Thirdly, over-focusing on how members of a cultural group can resolve intra-group inequities risks ignoring the role the whole workforce should play. In New Zealand, such partnership is recognised as one of the Principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. Section 14 of the Public Service Act reflects this stating that senior leadership has a responsibility for "developing and maintaining the capability of the public service to engage with Māori and to understand Māori perspectives".b It is also reflected in the Public Service Commission's strategies (see Diversity management below).Haar, J., Brougham, D., & Roche M. (2024). Inclusive workplaces for kaimahi Māori: Te Mahere Whai Mahi Māori (Māori Employment Action Plan). Ministry of Business, Employment and Innovation. https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/28035-inclusive-workplaces-for-kaimahi-maori-pdf
Diversity management Diversity management in the workplace involves supporting the coexistence of employees with a wide range of sociocultural, socio-economic, and demographic attributes.Roberson, Q. M. (2019). Diversity in the workplace: A review, synthesis, and future research agenda. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behaviour, 6(1), 69–88 It helps bring to life the aim of representative bureaucracy (the mirroring of the population being served), leveraging diversity to deliver better outcomes. It does so through deliberate implementation of initiatives including leadership programmes, mentoring of staff, and the establishment and monitoring of organisational targets.