The cultivation of cannabis in Italy has a long history dating back to Roman times, when it was primarily used to produce hemp ropes, although pollen records from core samples show that Cannabaceae plants were present in the Italian Peninsula since at least the Late Pleistocene, while the earliest evidence of their use dates back to the Bronze Age. For a long time after the fall of Rome in the 5th century A.D., the cultivation of hemp, although present in several Italian regions, mostly consisted in small-scale productions aimed at satisfying the local needs for fabrics and ropes. Known as canapa in Italian, the historical ubiquity of hemp is reflected in the different variations of the name given to the plant in the various regions, including canape, càneva, canava, and canva (or canavòn for female plants) in northern Italy; canapuccia and canapone in the Po Valley; cànnavo in Naples; cànnavu in Calabria; cannavusa and cànnavu in Sicily; cànnau and cagnu in Sardinia.
The mass cultivation of industrial cannabis for the production of hemp fiber in Italy really took off during the period of the Maritime Republics and the Age of Sail, due to its strategic importance for the naval industry. In particular, two main economic models were implemented between the 15th and 19th centuries for the cultivation of hemp, and their primary differences essentially derived from the diverse relationships between landowners and hemp producers. The Venetian model was based on a state monopoly system, by which the farmers had to sell the harvested hemp to the Arsenal at an imposed price, in order to ensure preferential, regular, and advantageous supplies of the raw material for the navy, as a matter of national security. Such system was particularly developed in the southern part of the province of Padua, which was under the direct control of the administrators of the Arsenal. Conversely, the Emilian model, which was typical of the provinces of Bologna and Ferrara, was strongly export-oriented and it was based on the mezzadria farming system by which, for instance, Bolognese landowners could relegate most of the production costs and risks to the farmers, while also keeping for themselves the largest share of the profits.
From the 18th century onwards, hemp production in Italy established itself as one of the most important industries at an international level, with the most productive areas being located in Emilia-Romagna, Campania, and Piedmont. The well renowned and flourishing Italian hemp sector continued well after the unification of the country in 1861, only to experience a sudden decline during the second half of the 20th century, with the introduction of synthetic fibers and the start of the war on drugs, and only recently it is slowly experiencing a resurgence.
Prehistory
The family of Cannabaceae includes the two genera of cannabis and humulus, with the former believed to be native exclusively to Asia, while the latter also to Europe. In particular, while humulus naturally dispersed from Asia to Europe without human agency, cannabis is commonly thought to have been spread by humans once its multiple uses, most importantly those involving its fiber, had been discovered and developed by the various cultures. At present, cannabis sativa is classified as an archaeophyte alien species for Italy, with sporadic wild occurrences being attributed to escaped plants, which are non-naturalized and distinct from the wild oriental varieties.
According to Greek historian and geographer Herodotus, the Scythians brought hemp from Central Asia to Europe during their migrations around 1500 B.C., while the Teutons were a major factor in the spread of the cultivation of hemp throughout Europe. Another proposed theory is that hemp may have been introduced into the continent by the earliest incursions of the Aryans into Thrace and Western Europe, although no evidence of its presence was found in the lake dwellings of Switzerland and northern Italy. Still other sources attribute the introduction of hemp into Italy to the arrivals of both the Scythians and the Illyrians between the 10th and the 8th centuries B.C. while, by the 6th and 5th centuries B.C., hemp cultivation was present throughout Italy.
Earliest evidence In any case, the oldest evidence of the presence of cannabis and humulus in central Italy dates back to the Late Glacial, long before the development of agriculture in western Eurasia, as inferred from sediment cores extracted from the Albano and Nemi lakes. The presence of cannabis pollen grains in sediments dated to the early Holocene suggests that the plant could have been introduced earlier, or that an indigenous hemp population may have already been present in the area before its domestication during the Bronze Age. Other prehistoric sites where sediment cores revealed the presence of hemp include the Great Lake of Monticchio, in Basilicata; and the coastal seabed of the Central Adriatic region, from a time when these sites would have been above sea level. Traces of hemp pollen have also been found in several Neolithic sites in anthropogenic contexts, which would indicate the probable cultivation of the plant during that period. These include three Middle Neolithic (i.e., 4500–4000 B.C.) sites in the areas of Piacenza, Parma, and Forlì in Emilia-Romagna; as well as other sites near the Annone and Alserio lakes in Lombardy, from 5000 B.C. onwards. Furthermore, while the sites where hemp pollen has been found are currently scarce for the Bronze Age, they increase in number for the Iron Age, especially during the centuries of Roman domination.
In regard to the sediment cores from central Italy, humulus pollen values increase during the mid Holocene, while hemp pollen grains become more frequent at the transition between the Neolithic and the Copper Age, with concentrations increasing and becoming more common only from the Bronze Age onwards. In addition, the sediment records show an increase in the human influence on the local vegetation, with hemp pollen values starting to rise from about 3000 cal BP (i.e., 1050 B.C.) onwards, and reaching their earliest peak during the 1st century A.D., as a clear consequence of the cultivation of hemp by the Romans, although the pre-Roman trends can be attributed to natural sources, and possibly to anthropogenic sources as well. Later peaks in the pollen records from central Italy also show clear evidence of hemp cultivation during the Medieval period.
In terms of the earliest evidence of the processing of hemp for the production of strings and fabrics in Italy, three micro-fragments of what appear to be hemp fibers were detected through a scanning electron microscope in the dental calculi of three female individuals from the Early Bronze Age. Furthermore, the analysis of the teeth of 28 females and one male from the same period, revealed evidence of activity-induced dental modifications that are consistent with yarn production, or weaving preparation, of small-diameter threads, which were repeatedly pulled across the fronts and sides of the individuals' upper incisors and canines. All the examined individuals were buried in an ancient cemetery located in Gricignano di Aversa, in southern Italy, and traces of hemp were also found attached to a metal blade, possibly the remains of a fabric sheath, in the tomb of an adult male within the same site. These findings show the importance that hemp fabrics had in the region at the time, as well as clear gender-based role divisions in the manufacturing of fibers.
Magna Graecia
In 1954, a now-famous hypogaeum was excavated by Italian archaeologist Pellegrino Claudio Sestieri in the Ancient Greek colony of Poseidonia, Magna Graecia, in the area of modern-day Capaccio Paestum. Dated to the late 6th century B.C., the underground structure was identified as a heroon possibly dedicated to the unknown founder of the city, based on the retrieved artifacts, which included eight bronze vases (i.e., six hydriai and two amphoras). Other proposed interpretations of the structure included a Nymph sanctuary, the cenotaph of the founder of Sybaris, or a Chthonian sanctuary; however, as very little written records are available from the considered period, the organic content of the vases constitutes the primary source of knowledge regarding the purpose of the sacellum.
In 2023, a scientific research paper was published regarding the detection of a significant quantity of cannabis pollen inside some of the hydriai, as well as of oil traces that were compatible with hemp oil. As the analyzed organic content of the vases was not consistent with the main Mediterranean ritual organic matters (e.g. honey, olive oil, and wine), it could not be attributed to a possible local heroic cult; while the fact that the pollen mainly came from male cannabis plants ruled out the use of said plants for intoxicating purposes.
Instead, the presence of cannabis could be attributed to environmental contamination, whether during the processing of the content (if the oil traces are indeed from hemp), the deposition of the vases and the sealing of the room, or possibly more recently during the excavation, storage, and handling of the archaeological find. Although the oil processing hypothesis is unlikely due to the fact that hemp oil would have been produced from the seeds of female plants, airborne pollen contamination from a local cultivation area before the room was closed is possible, with male hemp plants usually flowering earlier than female ones. Other potential causes also include a contemporary symbolic use of hemp plants, and the possible use of hemp textiles to decorate the room, since male plants were the preferred source of fiber.
Ancient Carthage
In 1969, the remains of two Punic ships from the 3rd century B.C. were discovered off the shore of Isola Lunga, not far from Lilybaion, on the western coast of Carthaginian Sicily. The two ships are believed to have been sunk during the First Punic War of 264–241 B.C., specifically at the Battle of the Aegates of 10 March 241 B.C., which was fought between the Carthaginian and Roman fleets. In 1971, a team led by the Cypriot-English pioneer of underwater archaeology Honor Frost uncovered from the site a few baskets that contained distinctive yellowish stems, no more than in length, which were later identified as similar to cannabis sativa.
As the stems were always found in association with food, in the presumed area of the ship's kitchen, it was postulated that cannabis could have been consumed by the Punic oarsmen possibly for its supposed mind-focusing abilities. Such postulation was based on a 1972 study on the use of the drug by Jamaican workmen, which states that almost without exception users maintain that ganja enhances their ability to perform manual labour, and they regularly consume ganja with this objective; however, Dr. Frost recognized that whether the Carthaginians would make an infusion potent enough to give fighting men "Dutch courage" is less certain.
Ancient Rome