The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) posits that human intelligence is not a single general ability but comprises various distinct modalities, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, and spatial intelligences. Introduced in Howard Gardner's book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983), this framework has gained popularity among educators who accordingly develop varied teaching strategies purported to cater to different student strengths.
Despite its educational impact, MI has faced criticism from the psychological and scientific communities. A primary point of contention is Gardner's use of the term "intelligences" to describe these modalities. Critics argue that labeling these abilities as separate intelligences expands the definition of intelligence beyond its traditional scope, leading to debates over its scientific validity.
While empirical research often supports a general intelligence factor (or g-factor), Gardner contends that his model offers a more nuanced understanding of human cognitive abilities. This difference in defining and interpreting "intelligence" has fueled ongoing discussions about the theory's scientific robustness.
Separation criteria Beginning in the late 1970s, using a pragmatic definition, Howard Gardner surveyed several disciplines and cultures around the world to determine skills and abilities essential to human development and culture building. He subjected candidate abilities to evaluation using eight criteria that must be substantively met to warrant their identification as an intelligence. Furthermore, the intelligences need to be relatively autonomous from each other, and composed of subsets of skills that are highly correlated and coherently organized.
In 1983, the field of cognitive neuroscience was embryonic, but Gardner was one of the early psychological theorists to describe direct links between brain systems and intelligence. Likewise, the field of educational neuroscience was yet to be conceived. Since Frames of Mind was published (1983), the terms cognitive science and cognitive neuroscience have become standard in the field with extensive libraries of scholarly and scientific papers and textbooks. Thus it is essential to examine evidence related to neuroscience and intelligence as it pertains to MI validity.
Gardner defined intelligence as "a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture." This definition is unique for several reasons, including its emphasis on multiple forms of intelligence, which contribute to its broad appeal among educators. However, mainstream psychologists often reject it because it challenges the traditional conception of intelligence as solely an abstract, logical capacity closely aligned with IQ tests and academic performance. A fundamental element for each intelligence is a framework of clearly defined levels of skill, complexity, and accomplishment. One model that fits aligns with the MI framework is Bloom's taxonomy, within which each intelligence can be delineated along levels ranging from basic knowledge to the highest levels of analysis/synthesis.
MI is also unique because it provides a full appreciation of the impact and interactions—via symbol systems—between the individual's cognitions and their particular culture. As Gardner states,
Unlike traditional models of intelligence developed from the 19th century onward, MI is not built on the statistical analyses of psychometric test data searching for factors that account for academic achievement. Instead, Gardner employs a multi-disciplinary, cross-cultural methodology to evaluate which human capacities fit into a comprehensive model of intelligence. Eight criteria accounting for advances in neuroscience and the influence of cultural factors are used to qualify a capacity as an intelligence. These criteria are drawn from a more extensive database than what was acceptable and available to researchers in the late 19th and 20th centuries. Evidence is gathered from a variety of disciplines, including psychology, neurology, biology, sociology, anthropology, and the arts and humanities. If a candidate faculty member meets this set of criteria reasonably well, it can qualify as an intelligence. If it does not, then it is set aside or reconceptualized.
Criteria for each type of intelligence
The eight criteria can be grouped into four general categories: biology (evolutionary neuroscience) analysis (core operations and symbol systems) psychology (skill development and individual differences) psychometrics (psychological experiments and test evidence)
The criteria briefly described are: potential for brain isolation by brain damage place in evolutionary history presence of core operations susceptibility to encoding (symbolic expression) a distinct developmental progression the existence of savants, prodigies, and other exceptional people support from experimental psychology support from psychometric findings
This scientific method resembles the process used by astronomers to determine which celestial bodies to classify as a planet versus a dwarf planet, star, comet, etc.
Forms of intelligences
In Frames of Mind and its sequels, Howard Gardner describes eight intelligences that can be expressed in everyday life in a variety of ways referred to as "domains", "skills", "competencies", or "talents". Like a multi-layer cake, the complexity depends upon how said cake slice the cake. One model integrates the eight intelligences with Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, so each intelligence is actively expressed in three ways: creative, academic/analytical, and practical thinking. In this analogy each of the eight cake layers are divided into three segments with different expressions sharing a central core. Exemplar professions and adult roles that require specific intelligences are described, along with their core skills and potential deficits. Several references to exemplar neuroscientific studies are also provided for each of the eight intelligences. Furthermore, some have suggested that the intelligences refer to talents, personality, or ability rather than a distinct form of intelligence.
The two intelligences most closely associated with the traditional intelligence quotient, or general intelligence, are the linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences. Some intelligence models and tests also include visual-spatial intelligence as a third element.
Musical
This area of intelligence includes sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, pitch, and tones of music. Individuals high in musical intelligence may be able to sing, play musical instruments, or compose music. They may be highly sensitive to pitch, meter, melody, and timbre. Musical intelligence includes cognitive elements that contribute to a person's success and quality of life. There is a strong relationship between music and emotions, as evidenced in both popular and classical music. Neuroscience investigators continue to investigate the interaction between music and cognitive performance. Music is deeply rooted in human evolutionary history, with Paleolithic flutes being an early example, and culture (many countries have national anthems),), and individual lives (given, for example, the use of music for weddings and funerals).
Deficits in musical processing and abilities include congenital amusia, tone deafness, musical hallucinations, musical anhedonia, acquired music agnosia, and auditory arrhythmia (beat deafness).
Professions requiring essential musical skills include vocalist, instrumentalist, lyricist, dancer, sound engineer, and composer. Musical intelligence, combined with kinesthetic intelligence, produces instrumentalists and dancers; combined with linguistic intelligence, it produces music critics and lyricists. Music combined with interpersonal intelligence is required for success as a music therapist or teacher.
Visual-spatial
This area deals with spatial awareness/judgment and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye. It is composed of two main dimensions: mental visualization and perception of the physical world (spatial arrangements and objects). It includes both practical problem-solving and artistic creations. Spatial ability is one of the three factors underlying general intelligence in the hierarchical model of intelligence. Many intelligence tests include a measure of spatial problem-solving skills (e.g., block design and mental rotation of objects).
Visual-spatial intelligence can be expressed in both practical (e.g., drafting and building) or artistic (e.g., fine art, crafts, and floral arrangements) ways. Or they can be combined in fields such as architecture, industrial design, landscape design, and fashion design. Visual-spatial processing is often combined with the kinesthetic intelligence and referred to as eye-hand or visual-motor integration for tasks such as hitting a baseball, sewing, golf, or skiing.
Professions that emphasize skill in visual-spatial processing include carpentry, engineering, design, piloting, firefighting, surgery, and commercial and fine arts and crafts. Spatial intelligence combined with linguistic is required for success as an art critic or textbook graphic designer. Spatial artistic skills combined with naturalist sensitivity produce a pet groomer, clothing designer, or costumer.
Linguistic
The core linguistic ability is sensitivity to words and their meanings. People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with expressive language and verbal comprehension. They are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories, rhetoric, and memorizing words along with dates. Verbal ability is one of the most g-loaded abilities.Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale III. Linguistic (academic-aspect) intelligence is measured by Verbal IQ on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (e.g., the WAIS-IV).
Deficits in linguistic abilities include expressive and receptive aphasias, agraphia, specific language impairment, written language disorder, and word recognition deficit (dyslexia).
Linguistic ability can be expressed according to triarchic theory in three main ways: analytical-academic (reading, writing, and definitions); practical (verbal or written directions, explanations, and narration); and creative (storytelling, poetry, lyrics, imaginative word play, and science fiction).
Professions that require linguistic skills include teaching, sales, management, counseling, leadership, childcare, journalism, academia, and politics (debating and advocating for particular sets of values). Linguistic intelligence combines with all other intelligences to facilitate communication, whether spoken or written. It is frequently highly correlated with interpersonal intelligence to facilitate social interactions for education, business, and human relations. Successful sports coaches combine three intelligences: kinesthetic, interpersonal, and linguistic. Corporate managers require skills in the interpersonal, linguistic, and logical-mathematical intelligences.
Logical-mathematical
This area concerns logic, abstractions, reasoning, calculations, and strategic and critical thinking. This intelligence includes the capacity to understand underlying principles of some causal system. Logical reasoning is closely linked to fluid intelligence as well as to general intelligence. This capacity is most often associated with convergent problem-solving, but it also includes divergent thinking associated with "problem-finding".
This intelligence is most closely associated with the cognitive development theory described by Jean Piaget (1983). The four main types of logical-mathematical intelligence include logical reasoning, calculations, practical thinking (common sense), and discovery.